02 | Philosophy: An Introduction to Indian Philosophy¶

The Nature of Philosophy and the Human Quest¶

Human beings are unique in their capacity for reflection and inquiry. Unlike other creatures, man uses his intellect not merely for survival but to explore the deeper questions of life. The struggle to understand oneself, others, and the world is a central aspect of human existence. The desire for knowledge emerges from this rational nature of man. It is not only about knowing facts but also about grasping meaning and purpose.

Philosophy, derived from the Greek words philo (love) and sophia (wisdom), literally means the "love of wisdom." It is an intellectual attempt to understand the nature of reality and to find guidance for living. Philosophy deals with fundamental questions such as:

What is the real nature of man?
What is the end or goal of life?
What is the nature of the universe?
Is there a creator or ultimate cause of the world?
How should we live in the light of our understanding of the self, the world, and the divine?

Such questions reflect not just theoretical curiosity but a practical concern for meaningful living. Philosophy thus becomes a guide for life, offering insights into how we should think, act, and relate to the world.

What is the real nature of man?¶

This question asks: Who or what are we at the most fundamental level? Are we just a body, or something more—like a mind, soul, or pure consciousness?

Vedānta (Advaita) teaches that the real nature of man is Ātman—pure, eternal, unchanging consciousness. The body and mind are temporary, but the Self is infinite and identical with Brahman, the Absolute Reality.
Example: A person may identify as a teacher or a parent, but according to Advaita Vedānta, these are just roles. The true self (Ātman) is beyond all labels and unaffected by birth or death—like the sky unaffected by passing clouds.
Sāṃkhya sees man as a combination of Puruṣa (consciousness) and Prakṛti (matter). True liberation comes from realizing that our real nature is the witnessing consciousness (Puruṣa), not the ever-changing body or mind.
Example: When someone meditates deeply and experiences a sense of peace and stillness beyond thoughts, emotions, and sensations, that points to an experience of the real self—not as a role, but as a being aware of all roles.

What is the end or goal of life?¶

This question explores: What should we strive for? Is the goal pleasure, success, service, wisdom, or liberation?

Indian philosophy identifies four puruṣārthas (goals of life):
Dharma – righteousness and duty
Artha – material prosperity
Kāma – legitimate desires and pleasures
Mokṣa – liberation from the cycle of birth and death
Among these, mokṣa is considered the highest goal.
Example: The Bhagavad Gītā teaches Arjuna that true fulfillment lies not in winning a war (artha/kāma), but in performing one's dharma without attachment to results, leading ultimately to mokṣa.
Example: Someone may pursue wealth and pleasure early in life but later turn inward in search of peace, meaning, or spiritual awakening. This transition reflects the Indian insight that worldly goals are preliminary, and life’s ultimate aim is inner freedom and self-realization.

What is the nature of the universe?¶

What kind of world do we live in? Is it real, illusion, divine, or material?

Vedānta (Advaita): The world is Māyā—a relative reality, dependent on Brahman. It appears real but is ultimately not independent.
Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika: The universe is made of real substances and categories, governed by laws, and created by a divine being.
Buddhism: The world is impermanent (anitya), unsatisfactory (duḥkha), and non-substantial (anātman). Everything is interdependent and in constant flux.
Example: Vedānta uses the snake-rope analogy: In the dark, a rope may be mistaken for a snake. Similarly, the world appears to be real and fearful, but with knowledge, we realize it's just Brahman, appearing in form.
Example: Science shows that everything in the universe is composed of atoms, constantly moving and changing. Similarly, Indian systems suggest that behind appearances lies a deeper reality—either material (prakṛti) or spiritual (Brahman).

Is there a creator or ultimate cause of the world?¶

Did the universe arise by chance, by law, or through a conscious will?

Theistic Vedānta (Viśiṣṭādvaita, Dvaita): God (Īśvara or Nārāyaṇa) is the efficient cause (creator) and material cause of the universe.
Sāṃkhya: The universe evolves from prakṛti without a conscious creator; it’s a natural process.
Mīmāṃsā and Buddhism: Deny a personal creator; karma and natural law govern existence.
Example: In the Bhagavad Gītā, Lord Kṛṣṇa says, “I am the source of all creation” (10.8). In contrast, Buddhism posits pratītya-samutpāda (dependent origination), where no creator is needed—just cause-and-effect.
Example: A theist may say the universe is like a well-designed machine, implying a designer (God). A non-theist may say it’s like a tree growing from a seed—not by design, but by natural law.

How should we live in the light of our understanding of the self, the world, and the divine?¶

This is the ethical and spiritual question: Given what we know about reality, what is the best way to live?

If the self is divine (Vedānta), we should live with detachment, equanimity, and compassion.
If the world is impermanent and full of suffering (Buddhism), we should cultivate mindfulness, non-attachment, and right action.
If karma governs life, we should live responsibly, doing righteous deeds without harming others.
Example: In Yoga philosophy, living ethically (yama-niyama), practicing self-discipline, and seeking inwardness leads to inner peace and liberation.
Example: Someone who believes in karma avoids dishonesty or violence, knowing these will return as suffering. Another who believes the self is pure consciousness may practice meditation and service, seeing all beings as expressions of the same divine essence.

Such questions reflect not just theoretical curiosity but a practical concern for meaningful living. Philosophy thus becomes a guide for life, offering insights into how we should think, act, and relate to the world.

Branches of Philosophy¶

To deal systematically with the complexities of reality and human experience, philosophy is traditionally divided into several branches:

Metaphysics: Concerned with the ultimate nature of reality. It explores concepts such as being, existence, causality, God, and the relationship between mind and matter.
Epistemology: The theory of knowledge. It asks how we know what we know, what the sources of knowledge are, and what constitutes truth.
Logic: The study of the rules of valid reasoning and argumentation. It provides the tools to distinguish sound reasoning from fallacious thinking.
Ethics: Concerned with moral values and principles. It addresses questions like what is right or wrong, what constitutes a good life, and the nature of justice and virtue.
Aesthetics: The philosophical study of beauty and art. It investigates the nature of aesthetic experience and artistic expression.
Axiology: The study of values, including both ethical and aesthetic values. It explores the nature of the good, the true, and the beautiful.

These branches help structure philosophical inquiry and enable a more focused exploration of human concerns.

Philosophy Hierarchy¶

Philosophy
Metaphysics (What is Reality?)
Epistemology (What is Knowledge?)
Axiology (The study of value)
- Ethics (The study of values and customs)
- Aesthetics (Deals with beauty)
Logic (The study of the principles of Truth and Reasoning)

Indian Philosophy: A Unique Synthesis¶

Indian philosophy encompasses all the above concerns but treats them in an integrated manner. Unlike Western traditions, which often compartmentalize different areas of inquiry, Indian thought tends to adopt a synthetic outlook. It views metaphysics, ethics, epistemology, and spirituality as interconnected.

A distinguishing feature of Indian philosophy is its dialectical method. Philosophers are required to:

Present the views of their opponents (known as pūrvapakṣa)
Refute those views (khaṇḍana)
Establish their own conclusions (siddhānta or uttarapakṣa)

This method promotes intellectual rigor and ensures that one's position is not upheld dogmatically but through reasoned argument.

The Schools of Indian Philosophy¶

Indian philosophy is traditionally divided into two main categories:

Orthodox Systems (Āstika)¶

These accept the authority of the Vedas and include six classical schools, known as the Ṣaḍdarśana:

Nyāya – Focuses on logic and epistemology
Vaiśeṣika – Concerned with metaphysics and atomism
Sāṃkhya – Dualistic philosophy distinguishing spirit (puruṣa) from matter (prakṛti)
Yoga – Practical discipline for mental and spiritual control
Pūrva Mīmāṃsā – Emphasizes ritual and dharma
Vedānta (Uttara Mīmāṃsā) – Focuses on the nature of Brahman and liberation

Heterodox Systems (Nāstika)¶

These reject the authority of the Vedas and include:

Cārvāka – Materialist and skeptical
Buddhism – Philosophy of impermanence, suffering, and non-self
Jainism – Emphasizes non-violence, many-sided truth (anekāntavāda), and liberation

Common Characteristics of Indian Philosophy¶

Despite the diversity of views, certain themes recur across Indian philosophical systems:

A. Practical Orientation¶

Indian philosophy is deeply practical. Its purpose is not merely theoretical knowledge but right living. It seeks to show how life may be lived wisely, leading to peace, harmony, and liberation. This practical motive distinguishes it from purely speculative traditions.

B. Moral and Spiritual Unity¶

All schools reflect a spiritual and moral outlook. They believe in a meaningful universe governed by ethical laws. This vision is reflected in the concept of dharma (righteous duty) and the pursuit of the four ends of life (puruṣārthas): dharma, artha (wealth), kāma (desire), and mokṣa (liberation).

C. Initial Pessimism, Final Optimism¶

Many Indian philosophies begin by acknowledging the suffering inherent in worldly existence. But this pessimism is only the starting point. The aim is to overcome suffering through self-knowledge and spiritual practice. For example, the Buddha's Four Noble Truths diagnose suffering and then provide a path to its cessation.

D. The Law of Karma: Moral Causality¶

The law of karma is central to Indian philosophy. It states that every action has consequences that shape one’s destiny. It explains the apparent inequalities of life by referring to moral causation.

Sanchita Karma – Accumulated karmas from past lives
Prārabdha Karma – That portion of past karma responsible for present circumstances
Kriyamāṇa Karma – Karma being created now, which will bear fruit in the future

Different schools offer varied interpretations:

Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika: Karma is governed by God (Ishvara)
Jainism, Buddhism, Mīmāṃsā: Karma operates independently of divine will
Bhagavad Gītā: Karma is a law, but God may mitigate it for His devotees

Selfless action, performed without attachment to its fruits, does not create bondage and helps in spiritual liberation.

E. Liberation (Mokṣa): The Ultimate Goal¶

All Indian systems recognize liberation as the highest aim of life. Liberation means freedom from the cycle of birth and death (saṃsāra) and the realization of true happiness.

Liberation requires the removal of ignorance (avidyā) through true knowledge (jñāna). It is not mere escape from pain but the attainment of positive bliss. Many traditions assert that liberation can be realized in this very life through intense practice and insight.

F. The Path to Liberation: Knowledge, Meditation, and Self-Control¶

True knowledge must be accompanied by meditation and discipline. Intellectual understanding alone is not enough; one must internalize the truth and live it.

Yoga offers a comprehensive method of self-discipline.
Self-control is essential for overcoming passions and disturbances that hinder concentration.

All systems agree that detachment, ethical conduct, and meditative practice are necessary for spiritual progress.